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Field Listing :: Legal system
This entry provides the description of a country's legal system; it also includes information on acceptance of International Court of Justice (ICJ) jurisdiction. The legal systems of nearly all countries are generally modeled upon elements of five main types: civil law (including French law, the Napoleonic Code, Roman law, Roman-Dutch law, and Spanish law); common law (including United State law); customary law; mixed or pluralistic law; and religious law (including Islamic law). An additional type of legal system - international law, which governs the conduct of independent nations in their relationships with one another - is also addressed below. The following list describes these legal systems, the countries or world regions where these systems are enforced, and a brief statement on the origins and major features of each.
Civil Law - The most widespread type of legal system in the world, applied in various forms in approximately 150 countries. Also referred to as European continental law, the civil law system is derived mainly from the Roman Corpus Juris Civilus, (Body of Civil Law), a collection of laws and legal interpretations compiled under the East Roman (Byzantine) Emperor Justinian I between A.D. 528 and 565. The major feature of civil law systems is that the laws are organized into systematic written codes. In civil law the sources recognized as authoritative are principally legislation - especially codifications in constitutions or statutes enacted by governments - and secondarily, custom. The civil law systems in some countries are based on more than one code.
Common Law - A type of legal system, often synonymous with "English common law," which is the system of England and Wales in the UK, and is also in force in approximately 80 countries formerly part of or influenced by the former British Empire. English common law reflects Biblical influences as well as remnants of law systems imposed by early conquerors including the Romans, Anglo-Saxons, and Normans. Some legal scholars attribute the formation of the English common law system to King Henry II (r.1154-1189). Until the time of his reign, laws customary among England's various manorial and ecclesiastical (church) jurisdictions were administered locally. Henry II established the king's court and designated that laws were "common" to the entire English realm. The foundation of English common law is "legal precedent" - referred to as stare decisis, meaning "to stand by things decided." In the English common law system, court judges are bound in their decisions in large part by the rules and other doctrines developed - and supplemented over time - by the judges of earlier English courts.
Customary Law - A type of legal system that serves as the basis of, or has influenced, the present-day laws in approximately 40 countries - mostly in Africa, but some in the Pacific islands, Europe, and the Near East. Customary law is also referred to as "primitive law," "unwritten law," "indigenous law," and "folk law." There is no single history of customary law such as that found in Roman civil law, English common law, Islamic law, or the Napoleonic Civil Code. The earliest systems of law in human society were customary, and usually developed in small agrarian and hunter-gatherer communities. As the term implies, customary law is based upon the customs of a community. Common attributes of customary legal systems are that they are seldom written down, they embody an organized set of rules regulating social relations, and they are agreed upon by members of the community. Although such law systems include sanctions for law infractions, resolution tends to be reconciliatory rather than punitive. A number of African states practiced customary law many centuries prior to colonial influences. Following colonization, such laws were written down and incorporated to varying extents into the legal systems imposed by their colonial powers.
European Union Law - A sub-discipline of international law known as "supranational law" in which the rights of sovereign nations are limited in relation to one another. Also referred to as the Law of the European Union or Community Law, it is the unique and complex legal system that operates in tandem with the laws of the 27 member states of the European Union (EU). Similar to federal states, the EU legal system ensures compliance from the member states because of the Union's decentralized political nature. The European Court of Justice (ECJ), established in 1952 by the Treaty of Paris, has been largely responsible for the development of EU law. Fundamental principles of European Union law include: subsidiarity - the notion that issues be handled by the smallest, lowest, or least centralized competent authority; proportionality - the EU may only act to the extent needed to achieve its objectives; conferral - the EU is a union of member states, and all its authorities are voluntarily granted by its members; legal certainty - requires that legal rules be clear and precise; and precautionary principle - a moral and political principle stating that if an action or policy might cause severe or irreversible harm to the public or to the environment, in the absence of a scientific consensus that harm would not ensue, the burden of proof falls on those who would advocate taking the action.
French Law - A type of civil law that is the legal system of France. The French system also serves as the basis for, or is mixed with, other legal systems in approximately 50 countries, notably in North Africa, the Near East, and the French territories and dependencies. French law is primarily codified or systematic written civil law. Prior to the French Revolution (1789-1799), France had no single national legal system. Laws in the northern areas of present-day France were mostly local customs based on privileges and exemptions granted by kings and feudal lords, while in the southern areas Roman law predominated. The introduction of the Napoleonic Civil Code during the reign of Napoleon I in the first decade of the 19th century brought major reforms to the French legal system, many of which remain part of France's current legal structure, though all have been extensively amended or redrafted to address a modern nation. French law distinguishes between "public law" and "private law." Public law relates to government, the French Constitution, public administration, and criminal law. Private law covers issues between private citizens or corporations. The most recent changes to the French legal system - introduced in the 1980s - were the decentralization laws, which transferred authority from centrally appointed government representatives to locally elected representatives of the people.
International Law - The law of the international community, or the body of customary rules and treaty rules accepted as legally binding by states in their relations with each other. International law differs from other legal systems in that it primarily concerns sovereign political entities. There are three separate disciplines of international law: public international law, which governs the relationship between provinces and international entities and includes treaty law, law of the sea, international criminal law, and international humanitarian law; private international law, which addresses legal jurisdiction; and supranational law - a legal framework wherein countries are bound by regional agreements in which the laws of the member countries are held inapplicable when in conflict with supranational laws. At present the European Union is the only entity under a supranational legal system. The term "international law" was coined by Jeremy Bentham in 1780 in his Principles of Morals and Legislation, though laws governing relations between states have been recognized from very early times (many centuries B.C.). Modern international law developed alongside the emergence and growth of the European nation-states beginning in the early 16th century. Other factors that influenced the development of international law included the revival of legal studies, the growth of international trade, and the practice of exchanging emissaries and establishing legations. The sources of International law are set out in Article 38-1 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice within the UN Charter.
Islamic Law - The most widespread type of religious law, it is the legal system enforced in over 30 countries, particularly in the Near East, but also in Central and South Asia, Africa, and Indonesia. In many countries Islamic law operates in tandem with a civil law system. Islamic law is embodied in the sharia, an Arabic word meaning "the right path." Sharia covers all aspects of public and private life and organizes them into five categories: obligatory, recommended, permitted, disliked, and forbidden. The primary sources of sharia law are the Qur'an, believed by Muslims to be the word of God revealed to the Prophet Muhammad by the angel Gabriel, and the Sunnah, the teachings of the Prophet and his works. In addition to these two primary sources, traditional Sunni Muslims recognize the consensus of Muhammad's companions and Islamic jurists on certain issues, called ijmas, and various forms of reasoning, including analogy by legal scholars, referred to as qiyas. Shia Muslims reject ijmas and qiyas as sources of sharia law.
Mixed Law - Also referred to as pluralistic law, mixed law consists of elements of some or all of the other main types of legal systems - civil, common, customary, and religious. The mixed legal systems of a number of countries came about when colonial powers overlaid their own legal systems upon colonized regions but retained elements of the colonies' existing legal systems.
Napoleonic Civil Code - A type of civil law, referred to as the Civil Code or Code Civil des Francais, forms part of the legal system of France, and underpins the legal systems of Bolivia, Egypt, Lebanon, Poland, and the US state of Louisiana. The Civil Code was established under Napoleon I, enacted in 1804, and officially designated the Code Napoleon in 1807. This legal system combined the Teutonic civil law tradition of the northern provinces of France with the Roman law tradition of the southern and eastern regions of the country. The Civil Code bears similarities in its arrangement to the Roman Body of Civil Law (see Civil Law above). As enacted in 1804, the Code addressed personal status, property, and the acquisition of property. Codes added over the following six years included civil procedures, commercial law, criminal law and procedures, and a penal code.
Religious Law - A legal system which stems from the sacred texts of religious traditions and in most cases professes to cover all aspects of life as a seamless part of devotional obligations to a transcendent, imminent, or deep philosophical reality. Implied as the basis of religious law is the concept of unalterability, because the word of God cannot be amended or legislated against by judges or governments. However, a detailed legal system generally requires human elaboration. The main types of religious law are sharia in Islam, halakha in Judaism, and canon law in some Christian groups. Sharia is the most widespread religious legal system (see Islamic Law), and is the sole system of law for countries including Iran, the Maldives, and Saudi Arabia. No country is fully governed by halakha, but Jewish people may decide to settle disputes through Jewish courts and be bound by their rulings. Canon law is not a divine law as such because it is not found in revelation. It is viewed instead as human law inspired by the word of God and applying the demands of that revelation to the actual situation of the church. Canon law regulates the internal ordering of the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion.
Roman Law - A type of civil law developed in ancient Rome and practiced from the time of the city's founding (traditionally 753 B.C.) until the fall of the Western Empire in the 5th century A.D. Roman law remained the legal system of the Byzantine (Eastern Empire) until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Preserved fragments of the first legal text, known as the Law of the Twelve Tables, dating from the 5th century B.C., contained specific provisions designed to change the prevailing customary law. Early Roman law was drawn from custom and statutes; later, during the time of the empire, emperors asserted their authority as the ultimate source of law. The basis for Roman laws was the idea that the exact form - not the intention - of words or of actions produced legal consequences. It was only in the late 6th century A.D. that a comprehensive Roman code of laws was published (see Civil Law above). Roman law served as the basis of law systems developed in a number of continental European countries.
Roman-Dutch Law - A type of civil law based on Roman law as applied in the Netherlands. Roman-Dutch law serves as the basis for legal systems in seven African countries, as well as Guyana, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka. This law system, which originated in the province of Holland and expanded throughout the Netherlands (to be replaced by the French Civil Code in 1809), was instituted in a number of sub-Saharan African countries during the Dutch colonial period. The Dutch jurist/philosopher Hugo Grotius was the first to attempt to reduce Roman-Dutch civil law into a system in his Jurisprudence of Holland (written 1619-20, commentary published 1621). The Dutch historian/lawyer Simon van Leeuwen coined the term "Roman-Dutch law" in 1652.
Spanish Law - A type of civil law, often referred to as the Spanish Civil Code, it is the present legal system of Spain and is the basis of legal systems in 12 countries mostly in Central and South America, but also in southwestern Europe, northern and western Africa, and southeastern Asia. The Spanish Civil Code reflects a complex mixture of customary, Roman, Napoleonic, local, and modern codified law. The laws of the Visigoth invaders of Spain in the 5th to 7th centuries had the earliest major influence on Spanish legal system development. The Christian Reconquest of Spain in the 11th through 15th centuries witnessed the development of customary law, which combined canon (religious) and Roman law. During several centuries of Hapsburg and Bourbon rule, systematic recompilations of the existing national legal system were attempted, but these often conflicted with local and regional customary civil laws. Legal system development for most of the 19th century concentrated on formulating a national civil law system, which was finally enacted in 1889 as the Spanish Civil Code. Several sections of the code have been revised, the most recent of which are the penal code in 1989 and the judiciary code in 2001. The Spanish Civil Code separates public and private law. Public law includes constitutional law, administrative law, criminal law, process law, financial and tax law, and international public law. Private law includes civil law, commercial law, labor law, and international private law.
United States Law - A type of common law, which is the basis of the legal system of the United States and that of its island possessions in the Caribbean and the Pacific. This legal system has several layers, more possibly than in most other countries, and is due in part to the division between federal and state law. The United States was founded not as one nation but as a union of 13 colonies, each claiming independence from the British Crown. The US Constitution, implemented in 1789, began shifting power away from the states and toward the federal government, though the states today retain substantial legal authority. US law draws its authority from four sources: constitutional law, statutory law, administrative regulations, and case law. Constitutional law is based on the US Constitution and serves as the supreme federal law. Taken together with those of the state constitutions, these documents outline the general structure of the federal and state governments and provide the rules and limits of power. US statutory law is legislation enacted by the US Congress and is codified in the United States Code. The 50 state legislatures have similar authority to enact state statutes. Administrative law is the authority delegated to federal and state executive agencies. Case law, also referred to as common law, covers areas where constitutional or statutory law is lacking. Case law is a collection of judicial decisions, customs, and general principles that began in England centuries ago, that were adopted in America at the time of the Revolution, and that continue to develop today.
Country
Legal system
Afghanistan based on mixed civil and sharia law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Akrotiri the Sovereign Base Area Administration has its own court system to deal with civil and criminal matters; laws applicable to the Cypriot population are, as far as possible, the same as the laws of the Republic of Cyprus
Albania has a civil law system; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction; has accepted jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court for its citizens
Algeria socialist, based on French and Islamic law; judicial review of legislative acts in ad hoc Constitutional Council composed of various public officials including several Supreme Court justices; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
American Samoa NA
Andorra based on French and Spanish civil codes; no judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Angola based on Portuguese civil law system and customary law; modified to accommodate political pluralism and increased use of free markets; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Anguilla based on English common law
Antarctica Antarctica is administered through annual meetings - known as Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings - which include consultative member nations, non-consultative member nations, observer organizations, and expert organizations; decisions from these meetings are carried out by these member nations (with respect to their own nationals and operations) in accordance with their own national laws; more generally, access to the Antarctic Treaty area, that is to all areas between 60 and 90 degrees south latitude, is subject to a number of relevant legal instruments and authorization procedures adopted by the states party to the Antarctic Treaty; note - US law, including certain criminal offenses by or against US nationals, such as murder, may apply extraterritorially; some US laws directly apply to Antarctica; for example, the Antarctic Conservation Act, 16 U.S.C. section 2401 et seq., provides civil and criminal penalties for the following activities unless authorized by regulation of statute: the taking of native mammals or birds; the introduction of nonindigenous plants and animals; entry into specially protected areas; the discharge or disposal of pollutants; and the importation into the US of certain items from Antarctica; violation of the Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to $10,000 in fines and one year in prison; the National Science Foundation and Department of Justice share enforcement responsibilities; Public Law 95-541, the US Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978, as amended in 1996, requires expeditions from the US to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans, Room 5805, Department of State, Washington, DC 20520, which reports such plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty; for more information, contact Permit Office, Office of Polar Programs, National Science Foundation, Arlington, Virginia 22230; telephone: (703) 292-8030, or visit its website at www.nsf.gov
Antigua and Barbuda based on English common law
Argentina mixture of US and West European legal systems; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Armenia based on civil law system; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Aruba based on Dutch civil law system with some English common law influence
Ashmore and Cartier Islands the laws of the Commonwealth of Australia and the laws of the Northern Territory of Australia where applicable apply
Australia based on English common law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations; accepts International Criminal Court jurisdiction with conditions
Austria civil law system with Roman law origin; judicial review of legislative acts by the Constitutional Court; separate administrative and civil/penal supreme courts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Azerbaijan based on civil law system; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Bahamas, The based on English common law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Bahrain based on Islamic law and English common law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Bangladesh based on English common law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Barbados English common law; no judicial review of legislative acts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Belarus based on civil law system; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Belgium based on civil law system influenced by English constitutional theory; judicial review of legislative acts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Belize English law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Benin based on French civil law and customary law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Bermuda English law
Bhutan based on Indian law and English common law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Bolivia based on Spanish law and Napoleonic Code; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction; the 2009 Constitution incorporates indigenous community justice into Bolivia's judicial system
Bosnia and Herzegovina based on civil law system; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Botswana based on Roman-Dutch law and local customary law; judicial review limited to matters of interpretation; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Bouvet Island the laws of Norway where applicable apply
Brazil based on Roman codes; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
British Indian Ocean Territory the laws of the UK where applicable apply
British Virgin Islands English law
Brunei based on English common law; for Muslims, Islamic sharia law supersedes civil law concerning Muslim marriages and inheritance; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Bulgaria civil and criminal law based on Roman law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Burkina Faso based on French civil law system and customary law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Burma based on English common law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Burundi based on German and Belgian civil codes and customary law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Cambodia primarily a civil law mixture of French-influenced codes from the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) period, royal decrees, and acts of the legislature with influences of customary law and remnants of communist legal theory; increasing influence of common law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Cameroon based on French civil law system with common law influence; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Canada based on English common law, except in Quebec, where civil law system based on French law prevails; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Cape Verde based on the legal system of Portugal; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Cayman Islands British common law and local statutes
Central African Republic based on French law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Chad based on French civil law system and Chadian customary law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Chile based on Code of 1857 derived from Spanish law and subsequent codes influenced by French and Austrian law; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction; note - in June 2005, Chile completed overhaul of its criminal justice system to a US-style adversarial system
China based on civil law system; derived from Soviet and continental civil code legal principles; legislature retains power to interpret statutes; constitution ambiguous on judicial review of legislation; party organs exercise authority over judiciary; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Christmas Island under the authority of the governor general of Australia and Australian law
Clipperton Island the laws of France where applicable apply
Cocos (Keeling) Islands based upon the laws of Australia and local laws
Colombia based on Spanish law; a new criminal code modeled after US procedures was enacted into law in 2004 and reached full implementation in January 2008; judicial review of executive and legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Comoros French and Islamic law in a new consolidated code; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Congo, Democratic Republic of the civil law based on Belgian law with Napoleonic Civil Code influence; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Congo, Republic of the based on French civil law system and customary law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Cook Islands based on New Zealand law and English common law
Coral Sea Islands the laws of Australia where applicable apply
Costa Rica based on Spanish civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Cote d'Ivoire based on French civil law system and customary law; judicial review in the Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Croatia based on Austro-Hungarian law system with Communist law influences; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Cuba based on Spanish civil law and influenced by American legal concepts with large elements of Communist legal theory; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Curacao based on Dutch civil law system with some English common law influence
Cyprus based on English common law with civil law modifications; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Czech Republic civil law system based on Austro-Hungarian codes; legal code modified to bring it in line with European Union obligations and to expunge Marxist-Leninist legal theory; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Denmark civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Dhekelia the Sovereign Base Area Administration has its own court system to deal with civil and criminal matters; laws applicable to the Cypriot population are, as far as possible, the same as the laws of the Republic of Cyprus
Djibouti based on French civil law system, traditional practices, and Islamic law; accepts ICJ compulsory jurisdiction with reservations
Dominica based on English common law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Dominican Republic based on French civil codes; Criminal Procedures Code modified in 2004 to include important elements of an accusatory system; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Ecuador based on civil law system; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Egypt based on Islamic and civil law (particularly Napoleonic codes); judicial review by Supreme Court and Council of State (oversees validity of administrative decisions); accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
El Salvador based on civil and Roman law with traces of common law; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Equatorial Guinea partly based on Spanish civil law and tribal custom; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Eritrea primary basis is the Ethiopian legal code of 1957 with revisions; new civil, commercial, and penal codes have not yet been promulgated; government also issues unilateral proclamations setting laws and policies; also relies on customary and post-independence-enacted laws and, for civil cases involving Muslims, Islamic law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Estonia based on civil law system; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Ethiopia based on civil law; currently transitional mix of national and regional courts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
European Union comparable to the legal systems of member states; first supranational law system
Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) English common law
Faroe Islands the laws of Denmark where applicable apply
Fiji based on British system; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Finland civil law system based on Swedish law; the president may request the Supreme Court to review laws; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
France civil law system with indigenous concepts; review of administrative but not legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
French Polynesia the laws of France where applicable apply
French Southern and Antarctic Lands the laws of France where applicable apply
Gabon based on French civil law system and customary law; judicial review of legislative acts in Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Gambia, The based on a composite of English common law, Islamic law, and customary law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Georgia based on civil law system; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Germany civil law system with indigenous concepts; judicial review of legislative acts in the Federal Constitutional Court; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Ghana based on English common law and customary law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Gibraltar the laws of the UK where applicable apply
Greece based on codified Roman law; judiciary divided into civil, criminal, and administrative courts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Greenland the laws of Denmark where applicable apply
Grenada based on English common law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Guam modeled on US; US federal laws apply
Guatemala civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Guernsey the laws of the UK where applicable apply; justice is administered by the Royal Court
Guinea based on French civil law system, customary law, and decree; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Guinea-Bissau based on French civil law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Guyana based on English common law with certain admixtures of Roman-Dutch law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Haiti based on Roman civil law system; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Heard Island and McDonald Islands the laws of Australia where applicable apply
Holy See (Vatican City) based on Code of Canon Law and revisions to it; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Honduras rooted in Roman and Spanish civil law with increasing influence of English common law; recent judicial reforms include abandoning Napoleonic legal codes in favor of the oral adversarial system; accepts ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Hong Kong based on English common law
Hungary based on the German-Austrian legal system; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Iceland civil law system based on Danish law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
India based on English common law; judicial review of legislative acts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations; separate personal law codes apply to Christians, Hindus, and Muslims
Indonesia based on Roman-Dutch law, substantially modified by indigenous concepts and by new criminal procedures and election codes; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Iran based on sharia law system; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Iraq based on European civil and Islamic law under the framework outlined in the Iraqi Constitution; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Ireland based on English common law substantially modified by indigenous concepts; judicial review of legislative acts in Supreme Court; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Isle of Man the laws of the UK where applicable apply and Manx statutes
Israel mixture of English common law, British Mandate regulations, and in personal matters Jewish, Christian, and Muslim legal systems; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Italy based on civil law system; appeals treated as new trials; judicial review under certain conditions in Constitutional Court; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Jamaica based on English common law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Jan Mayen the laws of Norway where applicable apply
Japan modeled after European civil law systems with English-American influence; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Jersey the laws of the UK where applicable apply and local statutes; justice is administered by the Royal Court
Jordan based on Islamic law and French codes; judicial review of legislative acts in a specially provided High Tribunal; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Kazakhstan based on Islamic law and Roman law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Kenya based on Kenyan statutory law, Kenyan and English common law, tribal law, and Islamic law; judicial review in High Court; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations; constitutional amendment of 1982 making Kenya a de jure one-party state repealed in 1991
Kiribati English common law supplemented by local, customary law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Korea, North based on Prussian civil law system with Japanese influences and Communist legal theory; no judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Korea, South combines elements of continental European civil law systems, Anglo-American law, and Chinese classical thought; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Kosovo evolving legal system based on terms of former UN Special Envoy Martti AHTISAARI's Plan for Kosovo's supervised independence; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Kuwait civil law system with Islamic law significant in personal matters; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Kyrgyzstan based on French and Russian laws; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Laos based on traditional customs, French legal norms and procedures, and socialist practice; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Latvia based on civil law system with traces of Socialist legal traditions and practices; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Lebanon mixture of Ottoman law, canon law, Napoleonic code, and civil law; the constitutional court reviews laws only after they have been passed; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Lesotho based on English common law and Roman-Dutch law; judicial review of legislative acts in High Court and Court of Appeal; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Liberia dual system of statutory law based on Anglo-American common law for the modern sector and customary law based on unwritten tribal practices for indigenous sector; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Libya based on Italian and French civil law systems and Islamic law; separate religious courts; no constitutional provision for judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Liechtenstein local civil and penal codes based on civil law system; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Lithuania based on civil law system; legislative acts can be appealed to the constitutional court; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Luxembourg based on civil law system; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Macau based on Portuguese civil law system
Macedonia based on civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Madagascar based on French civil law system and traditional Malagasy law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Malawi based on English common law and customary law; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court of Appeal; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Malaysia based on English common law; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court at request of supreme head of the federation; Islamic law is applied to Muslims in matters of family law and religion; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Maldives based on Islamic law with admixtures of English common law primarily in commercial matters; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Mali based on French civil law system and customary law; judicial review of legislative acts in Constitutional Court; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Malta based on English common law and Roman civil law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Marshall Islands based on adapted Trust Territory laws, acts of the legislature, municipal, common, and customary laws; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Mauritania a combination of Islamic law and French civil law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Mauritius based on French civil law system with elements of English common law in certain areas; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Mayotte the laws of France where applicable apply
Mexico mixture of US constitutional theory and civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Micronesia, Federated States of based on adapted Trust Territory laws, acts of the legislature, municipal, common, and customary laws; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Moldova based on civil law system; Constitutional Court reviews legality of legislative acts and governmental decisions of resolution; accepts many UN and Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) documents; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Monaco based on French law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Mongolia blend of Soviet and German systems that employ "continental" or "civil" code; case-precedent may be used to inform judges, but all decisions must refer to the law as written; constitution ambiguous on judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Montenegro based on civil law system; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Montserrat English common law and statutory law
Morocco based on Islamic law and French and Spanish civil law systems; judicial review of legislative acts in Constitutional Chamber of Supreme Court; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Mozambique based on Portuguese civil law system and customary law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Namibia based on Roman-Dutch law and 1990 constitution; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Nauru acts of the Nauru Parliament and British common law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Navassa Island the laws of the US where applicable apply
Nepal based on Hindu legal concepts and English common law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Netherlands based on civil law system incorporating French penal theory; constitution does not permit judicial review of acts of the States General; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Netherlands Antilles based on Dutch civil law system with some English common law influence
New Caledonia based on French civil law; the 1988 Matignon Accords grant substantial autonomy to the islands
New Zealand based on English law, with special land legislation and land courts for the Maori; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Nicaragua civil law system; Supreme Court may review administrative acts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Niger based on French civil law system and customary law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Nigeria based on English common law, Islamic law (in 12 northern states), and traditional law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Niue English common law; note - Niue is self-governing with the power to make its laws
Norfolk Island based on the laws of Australia, local ordinances and acts; English common law applies in matters not covered by either Australian or Norfolk Island law
Northern Mariana Islands based on US system except for customs, wages, immigration laws, and taxation
Norway mixture of customary law, civil law system, and common law traditions; Supreme Court renders advisory opinions to legislature when asked; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Oman based on English common law and Islamic law; ultimate appeal to the monarch; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Pakistan based on English common law with provisions to accommodate Pakistan's status as an Islamic state; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Palau based on Trust Territory laws, acts of the legislature, municipal, common, and customary laws; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Panama based on civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court of Justice; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Papua New Guinea based on English common law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Paraguay based on Argentine codes, Roman law, and French codes; judicial review of legislative acts in Supreme Court of Justice; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Peru based on civil law system; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Philippines based on Spanish and Anglo-American law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Pitcairn Islands local island by-laws
Poland based on a mixture of Continental (Napoleonic) civil law and holdover Communist legal theory; changes being gradually introduced as part of broader democratization process; limited judicial review of legislative acts, but rulings of the Constitutional Tribunal are final; court decisions can be appealed to the European Court of Justice in Strasbourg; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Portugal based on civil law system; the Constitutional Tribunal reviews the constitutionality of legislation; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Puerto Rico based on Spanish civil code and within the US Federal system of justice
Qatar based on Islamic and civil law codes; discretionary system of law controlled by the Amir, although civil codes are being implemented; Islamic law dominates family and personal matters; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Romania based on civil law system; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Russia based on civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Rwanda based on German and Belgian civil law systems and customary law; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Saint Barthelemy the laws of France, where applicable, apply
Saint Helena, Ascension, and Tristan da Cunha English common law and statutes supplemented by local statutes
Saint Kitts and Nevis based on English common law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Saint Lucia based on English common law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Saint Martin the laws of France where applicable apply
Saint Pierre and Miquelon the laws of France where applicable apply
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines based on English common law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Samoa based on English common law and local customs; judicial review of legislative acts with respect to fundamental rights of the citizen; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
San Marino based on civil law system with Italian law influences; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Sao Tome and Principe based on Portuguese legal system and customary law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Saudi Arabia based on sharia law, several secular codes have been introduced; commercial disputes handled by special committees; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Senegal based on French civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts in Constitutional Court; the Council of State audits the government's accounting office; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Serbia based on civil law system; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations; note - Serbia is working to reform its justice sector and harmonize its judicial systems with EU standards
Seychelles based on English common law, French civil law, and customary law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Sierra Leone based on English law and customary laws indigenous to local tribes; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Singapore based on English common law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Sint Maarten based on Dutch civil law system with some English common law influence
Slovakia civil law system based on Austro-Hungarian codes; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations; legal code modified to comply with the obligations of Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and to expunge Marxist-Leninist legal theory
Slovenia based on civil law system; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Solomon Islands English common law, which is widely disregarded; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Somalia no national system; a mixture of English common law, Italian law, Islamic sharia, and Somali customary law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
South Africa based on Roman-Dutch law and English common law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands the laws of the UK where applicable apply; the senior magistrate from the Falkland Islands presides over the Magistrates Court
Spain civil law system with regional applications; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Sri Lanka a highly complex mixture of English common law, Roman-Dutch, Kandyan, and Jaffna Tamil law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Sudan based on English common law and Islamic law; as of 20 January 1991, the now defunct Revolutionary Command Council imposed Islamic law in the northern states; Islamic law applies to all residents of the northern states regardless of their religion; however, the CPA establishes some protections for non-Muslims in Khartoum; some separate religious courts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations; the southern legal system is still developing under the CPA following the civil war; Islamic law will not apply to the southern states
Suriname based on Dutch legal system incorporating French penal theory; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Svalbard the laws of Norway where applicable apply
Swaziland based on South African Roman-Dutch law in statutory courts and Swazi traditional law and custom in traditional courts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Sweden civil law system influenced by customary law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Switzerland civil law system influenced by customary law; judicial review of legislative acts, except with respect to federal decrees of general obligatory character; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Syria based on a combination of French and Ottoman civil law; Islamic law is used in the family court system; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Taiwan based on civil law system; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Tajikistan based on civil law system; no judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Tanzania based on English common law; judicial review of legislative acts limited to matters of interpretation; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Thailand based on civil law system with influences of common law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Timor-Leste On 29 March 2009 the president promulgated the Timor-Leste penal code; UN-drafted legal system based on Indonesian law remains in place for civil codes but is to be replaced by civil codes based on Portuguese law; these have passed but have not been promulgated; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Togo French-based court system; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Tokelau New Zealand and local statutes
Tonga based on English common law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Trinidad and Tobago based on English common law; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Tunisia based on French civil law system and Islamic law; some judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court in joint session; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Turkey civil law system derived from various European continental legal systems; note - member of the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), although Turkey claims limited derogations on the ratified European Convention on Human Rights; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Turkmenistan transitioning to civil law system and influenced by Islamic law tradition; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Turks and Caicos Islands based on laws of England and Wales with a few adopted from Jamaica and The Bahamas
Tuvalu English common law supplemented by local customary law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Uganda based on English common law and customary law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Ukraine based on civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
United Arab Emirates based on a dual system of sharia and civil courts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
United Kingdom based on common law tradition with early Roman and modern continental influences; has nonbinding judicial review of Acts of Parliament under the Human Rights Act of 1998; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
United States federal court system based on English common law; each state has its own unique legal system of which all but one (Louisiana, which is still influenced by the Napoleonic Code) is based on English common law; judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges the laws of the US where applicable apply
Uruguay based on Spanish civil law system; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Uzbekistan based on civil law system; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Vanuatu unified system being created from former dual French and British systems; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Venezuela open, adversarial court system; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Vietnam based on communist legal theory and French civil law system; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Virgin Islands based on US laws
Wake Island the laws of the US where applicable apply
Wallis and Futuna the laws of France where applicable apply
World all members of the UN are parties to the statute that established the International Court of Justice (ICJ) or World Court
Yemen based on Islamic law, Turkish law, English common law, and local tribal customary law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Zambia based on English common law and customary law; judicial review of legislative acts in an ad hoc constitutional council; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Zimbabwe mixture of Roman-Dutch and English common law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
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The online Factbook is updated bi-weekly. ISSN 1553-8133
For additional information on government leaders in selected foreign countries, go to World Leaders.